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标题: NT系列操作系统发展历史 [打印本页]
作者: Mallon    时间: 2007-2-13 11:15     标题: NT系列操作系统发展历史

Windows NT 3.1 is the first release of Microsoft's Windows NT line of server and business desktop operating systems, and was released to manufacturing on July 271993. The version number was chosen to match the one of Windows3.1, the then-latest GUI from Microsoft, on account of the similar visual appearance ofthe user interface. Two editions of NT 3.1 were made available, Windows NT 3.1 and Windows NT Advanced Server.
It could run on Intel x86, DEC Alpha, andMIPS R4000 CPUs.
OverviewDevelopment of Windows NT started in November 1988, after Microsoft hired a group of developers from Digital Equipment Corporation led by Dave Cutler.Many elements of the design reflect earlier DEC experience with VMS and RSX-11. The operating system was designed to run on multiple instruction setarchitectures and multiple hardware platforms within each architecture. The platform dependencies are largely hidden fromthe rest of the system by a kernel mode module called the HAL.
Windows NT was originally intended to be OS/2 3.0, the third version of the operating systemdeveloped jointly by Microsoft and IBM. When Windows 3.0 wasreleased in May 1990, it was so successful that Microsoft decided to change the primary application programming interface for the still-unreleased NT OS/2 (as it was thenknown) from an extended OS/2 API to an extended Windows API. This decision caused tensionbetween Microsoft and IBM, and the collaboration ultimately fell apart. IBM continued OS/2 development alone, while Microsoftcontinued work on the newly-renamed Windows NT.
The first public demonstration of Windows NT, at the time called "Windows Advanced Server for Lan Manager", was at a developerconference in August 1991,[1] and wasformally announced at the Spring 1993 Comdex in Atlanta, Georgia.
Application programming interfaces in Windows NT are implemented assubsystems atop the undocumented Native API; it was this that allowed the lateadoption of the Windows API. Windows NT was the first operating system to use Unicodeinternally.
The project had a codename of just "NT OS", which is preserved in the filename of theWindows NT kernel, ntoskrnl.exe. Since it was targeted to become the next version of OS/2, a more official name of theproject was "NT OS/2". This name is preserved up to now in some Windows NT DDK files.
Though "NT OS/2" was finally released as "Windows NT", it is largely compatible with OS/2 applications and HPFS disk volumes.
N-TenOriginally the OS was targeted at the Intel i860 CPU, codenamed N10 (or "N-Ten"),hence the name for the NT operating system family [1]. But the i860 was "horribly behind schedule", so the NT team used an emulator beforei860 prototype hardware (code-named Dazzle) was available. Support for the other platforms followed later. The rationalefor targeting the i860 first was to improve portability and avoid producing an x86-centric design [2].
Similarities to Windows 3.1Windows NT 3.1's UI was so similar to Windows 3.1's UI that people would sometimes mistake it for Windows 3.1. This made theOS very easy to use for people with prior experience with Windows 3.x.


作者: Mallon    时间: 2007-2-13 11:17

Windows NT 3.5 (originally codenamed Daytona) is the second release ofMicrosoft's Windows NT line of operating systems, and was released on September 211994.
OverviewThis is the first Windows NT to adopt the names Windows NT Workstation and Windows NT Server for its editions.The editions of the previous Windows NT release, Windows NT 3.1, were named WindowsNT and Windows NT Advanced Server. The screenshot shown is for the Windows NT Workstation release.
The new key features in Windows NT 3.5 included the new startup screen, no longer being a black DOS box lookalike and theinterface was changed to the same as that for the Windows for Workgroups 3.xx series to maintain consistency between thesetwo operating systems. It also included far better Object Linking andEmbedding (OLE) support and was more efficient - performance was higher and it required less memory.
In July 1995, Windows NT 3.5 with Service Pack 3 was rated by the National SecurityAgency as complying with TCSEC C2 criteria[1].
TriviaIn order to meet Wikipedia's quality standards, thisarticle's trivia section requires cleanup.
Content in the trivia section should be integrated into other appropriate areas of thearticle.


作者: Mallon    时间: 2007-2-13 11:18

Windows NT 3.51 is the third major release of Microsoft's Windows NT line of operating systems. It was released onMay 30 1995, nine months after its predecessor, Windows NT 3.5. The release provided two notable feature improvements; firstly NT 3.51 was the first of ashort-lived outing of Microsoft Windows on the PowerPC CPU architecture. The second most significantenhancement offered through the release was that it provided client/server support for interoperating with Windows 95, which was released three months after NT 3.51. Windows NT4.0 became its successor a year later; Microsoft continued to support 3.51 until December31 2001.
OverviewThe release of Windows NT 3.51 was dubbed "the PowerPC release" at Microsoft. The original intention was to release a PowerPCedition of NT 3.5, but according to Microsoft's David Thompson, "we basically sat around for 9 months fixing bugs while wewaited for IBM to finish the Power PC hardware"[1]. Editions of NT 3.51 were also released for Intel'sx86, MIPS, and DECAlpha architectures.
Despite the significant difference in the kernel base, Windows NT 3.51 was readily able to run a large number ofWin32 applications designed for Windows 95. Despitethis, Microsoft in their application releases muddled the issue, releasing 32-bit versions ofMicrosoft Office right up to Office 97 SR2b, but relying upon 16-bit versions of Internet Explorer technology.
Microsoft also released test versions of a shell refresh, named the Shell Technology Preview. The update was designedto replace the Windows 3.x Program Manger/File Manager based shell with a WindowsExplorer-based graphical user interface. The release providedcapabilities quite similar to that of the Windows "Chicago" (codename for Windows 95) shell during its late beta phases, however was intended tobe nothing more than a test release[2]. Therewere two public releases of the Shell Technology Preview, made available to MSDN and CompuServe users; May26 1995 and August 8 1995.Both held Windows Explorer builds of 3.51.1053.1. The Shell Technology Preview program never saw a final release under NT 3.51.The entire program was moved across to the Cairo development group who finallyintegrated the new shell design into the NT code with the release of NT 4.0 in July 1996.
Five Service Packs were released for NT 3.51, which introduced both bug fixes and newfeatures. Service Pack 5, for example, fixed issues related to the Year 2000problem.
NT3.51 was the last of the series to run on a 386,and is in some ways the leastresource-hungry of the NT line. This, and its ability to run at leastsome of the common control API, means that it still finds aplace for occasional use on older machines. Private modifications(SuperPacks - see ref. below) to enable new features (forexample FAT32 partitions) are available.
作者: Mallon    时间: 2007-2-13 11:19

Windows NT 4.0 was the fourth release of Microsoft's Windows NT or "New Technology" line of operating systems, which wasstarted with Windows NT 3.1 in 1993. NT 4.0 was released to manufacturing on July 291996. It is a 32-bit Windows system available in both workstation and server editions with a graphical environment similarto that of Windows 95.
While providing far greater stability than Windows 95, it was also less flexible from a desktop perspective. Much of thestability is gained by virtualising the hardware and having software applications access the system APIs rather than the hardware directly as was done in DOS-based versions, including Windows 95 and later. The trade-off is that writing to the APIs rather than hardwaredirectly requires much more work be done by the computer and so hardware intensive applications such as games run much slower.While many programs written for the Win32 API will run on both Windows 95 and Windows NT,despite support for DirectX, the majority of 3D games will not.
The dichotomy between the NT and "9x" lines of Windows only ended with the arrival of WindowsXP, by which time the gaming APIs—such as OpenGL and DirectX—had matured sufficiently to be more efficient to write for than common PC hardware and the hardwareitself had become powerful enough to handle the API processingoverhead acceptably.
Windows NT 4.0 was rendered obsolete with the advent of Windows 2000 but it remained(as of 2005) in widespread use as a stable workhorse despite Microsoft's many efforts to persuadecustomers to upgrade to more recent versions.
FeaturesMost noticeable was that both the workstation and server editions of Windows NT 4.0 had gained the user interface ofWindows 95, including the Windows Shell,Windows Explorer (known as Windows NT Explorer), and the use of "My" nomenclature (e.g.My Documents).
The server editions of Windows NT 4.0 include a built-in web server, Internet Information Services version 2.0. It also natively supported plugins andextensions of Microsoft FrontPage, a web sitecreation and management application.
Other important features included with this release were MicrosoftTransaction Server for network applications, and Microsoft MessageQueuing (MSMQ), which improved communication.
One significant change from previous versions of Windows NT was that the GraphicsDevice Interface (GDI) was incorporated into the kernel[2] to speed up the Graphical user interface (GUI),which resulted in a significant performance improvement over Windows NT 3.51, but alsocreated the requirement to have graphics drivers located in the kernel, resulting in potential stability issues.
One bad thing about Windows NT 4.0 was that it lacked support for Direct3D. This however wasresolved in all future releases of the NT family such as Windows 2000. Not surprisingly,Windows NT 4.0 also did not support USB, but that was also fixed with the releaseof Windows 2000.
Service PacksMicrosoft released Windows NT 4.0 service packs primarily to fix bugs. Windows NT 4.0, during the product's lifecycle, had several service packs, as well as numerousservice rollup packages and option packs. The last full service pack was Service Pack 6a (SP6a).
SoftwareDateRelease To ManufactureJuly 29 1996General ReleaseAugust 24 1996Service Pack 1October 16 1996Service Pack 2December 14 1996Service Pack 3May 15 1997Service Pack 4October 25 1998Service Pack 5May 4 1999Service Pack 6November 22 1999Service Pack 6aNovember 30 1999Post Service Pack 6a Security RollupJuly 26 2001A SP7 was planned at one stage in early 2001, but this became the Post SP6a Security Rollup and not a full ServicePack.
The service packs and an option pack were also released to add features. These included newer versions of Internet Information Services, versions 3.0, and 4.0, support for Active Server Pages, public-key and certificate authority functionality, smart card support,improved symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) scalability, clustering capabilities, and component object model (COM) support, amongothers.
EditionsServersWindows NT 4.0 Server was included in versions 4.0 and 4.5 of BackOfficeSmall Business Server suite.
OtherSecurityThere is no fix for the MS03-010 security issue on Windows NT 4.0 because Microsoft claims that "Due to these fundamental differencesbetween Windows NT 4.0 and Windows 2000 and its successors, it is infeasible to rebuild the software for Windows NT 4.0 toeliminate the vulnerability. To do so would require rearchitecting a very significant amount of the Windows NT 4.0 operatingsystem, and not just the RPC component affected. The product of such a rearchitecture effort would be sufficiently incompatiblewith Windows NT 4.0 that there would be no assurance that applications designed to run on Windows NT 4.0 would continue tooperate on the patched system."
Instead, Microsoft suggested that Windows NT 4.0 users protect the NT 4.0 system with a firewall that blocks Port 135.
作者: Mallon    时间: 2007-2-13 11:21

Windows 2000
Windows 2000
(Part of the Microsoft Windowsfamily)
Screenshot

Screenshot of Windows 2000 Professional
Developer
Microsoft
Web site: www.microsoft.com/windows2000
Release information
Release date:February 17 2000 info
Current version:5.0 SP4 Rollup 1 (September 13 2005) info
Source model:Closed source
License:Microsoft EULA
Kernel type:Hybrid kernel
Support status
Extended Support Period, only security updates will be providedunpaid.[1]
Windows 2000 (also referred to as Win2K) is a preemptible,interruptible, graphical and business-oriented operating system that is designed towork with either uniprocessor or symmetricmulti-processor 32-bit Intel x86 computers. It is part of the Microsoft Windows NT line of operating systems and was released on February 172000. It was succeeded by Windows XP in October 2001 andWindows Server 2003 in April 2003.Windows 2000 is classified as a hybrid kernel operating system, and its architecture is divided into two modes: usermode and kernel mode. The kernel mode provides unrestricted access tosystem resources and facilitates the user mode, which is heavily restricted and designed for most applications.
Windows 2000 was made available in four editions: Professional, Server, Advanced Server, and Datacenter Server. Additionally,Microsoft offered Windows 2000 Advanced Server Limited Edition, which was released in 2001 and runs on 64-bit Intel Itanium microprocessors.All editions of Windows 2000 have common functionality, including many system utilities such as the Microsoft Management Console and standard system management applications such as a diskdefragmentation utility. Support for people with disabilities was improved with a number of new assistive technologies, and Microsoft included increased support for different languages and localeinformation. All versions of the operating system support the Windows NT filesystem, NTFS 5, theEncrypting File System, as well as basic and dynamic disk storage. The Windows2000 Server family has additional functionality, including the ability to provide ActiveDirectory services (a hierarchical framework of resources), Distributed File System(a file system that supports sharing of files) andfault-redundant storage volumes. Windows 2000 can be installed anddeployed to corporate desktops through either an attended orunattended installation. Unattended installations rely on the use ofanswer files to fill in installation information, and can beperformed through a bootable CD using Microsoft Systems ManagementServer, by the System Preparation Tool.
Microsoft has marketed Windows 2000 as "the most secure Windows we've ever shipped"[2], however it has become the target of a number of high-profile virusattacks such as Code Red and Nimda, and more than six years after its release, continues to receive patches for securityvulnerabilities on a near-monthly basis.
HistorySee also: History of MicrosoftWindowsWindows 2000 is a continuation of the Microsoft Windows NT line of operating systems,replacing its predecessor, Windows NT 4.0. Originally called Windows NT 5.0,Microsoft changed the name to Windows 2000 on October 27 1998[3] It was alsothe first Windows version that was released without a code name,though Windows 2000 Service Pack 1 was codenamed "Asteroid" and Windows 2000 64-bit was codenamed "Janus" (not to be confusedwith Windows 3.1, which had the same codename). The first beta for Windows 2000 wasreleased on September 27 1997 and several further betas werereleased until Beta 3 which was released on April 29 1999. Fromhere, Microsoft issued three release candidates between July and November 1999, and finally released the operating system topartners on December 12 1999.[4] The public received the full version of Windows 2000 on February 17 2000 and the press immediately hailed it as the most stableoperating system Microsoft had ever released[citation needed]. InformationWeek summarized the release "our tests show the successor to NT 4.0 is everything we hoped itwould be. Of course, it isn't perfect either."[5]Wired News later described the results of the February launch as "lackluster"[6]. Novell was not so impressedwith Microsoft's new directory service architecture as they found it to be less scalable or reliable than their ownNovell Directory Services (NDS) technology.[7]
Originally, Windows 2000 was planned to replace both Windows 98 and Windows NT 4. However, that was later changed. Instead, anupdated version of Windows 98 called Windows 98 Second Edition was released in 1999 as a successor to Windows 98. In 1999,Microsoft started development on a project called Windows Neptune, which was supposed tobe a home-user edition of Windows 2000. However, the project lagged in production time – and only one alpha release was built.Windows Me was released as a substitute, and the Neptune project was cancelled in favour ofWhistler (Windows XP). The only elements of the Neptune project which were included in Windows 2000 were the ability to upgradefrom Windows 95 or Windows 98, and support for the FAT32 file system.
On September 29 2000, Microsoft released Windows 2000Datacenter Server, targeted at large-scale computing systems with support for 32 processors.
Four service packs were released for Windows 2000: Service Pack 1 (SP1) onAugust 15 2000, Service Pack 2 (SP2) on May 16 2001, Service Pack 3 (SP3) on August 292002 and its last Service Pack (SP4) on June 26 2003. Microsoft has stated that they will not release a Service Pack 5, but instead, have made available an "UpdateRollup" for Service Pack 4. Microsoft phased out all development of their Java VirtualMachine (JVM) from Windows 2000 in Service Pack 3.
Windows 2000 has since been superseded by newer Microsoft operating systems. Microsoft replaced Windows 2000 Server productswith Windows Server 2003, and Windows 2000 Professional with Windows XP Professional.
Architecture
The Windows 2000 operating system architecture consists of two layers (user mode and kernel mode), with many different moduleswithin both of these layers.


See also: Architecture of the Windows NToperating system lineWindows 2000 is a highly modular system that consists of two main layers: a usermode and a kernel mode. The user mode refers to the mode in which userprograms are run. Such programs are limited in terms of what system resources they have access to, while the kernel mode hasunrestricted access to the system memory and external devices. All user mode applications access system resources through theexecutive which runs in kernel mode.
User modeUser mode in Windows 2000 is made of subsystems capable of passing I/O requests to theappropriate kernel mode drivers by using the I/O manager. Two subsystems make up the user mode layer of Windows 2000: theenvironment subsystem and the integral subsystem.
The environment subsystem was designed to run applications written for many different types of operating systems. Theseapplications, however, run at a lower priority than kernel mode processes. There are three main environment subsystems:
The integral subsystem looks after operating system specific functions on behalf of the environment subsystem. It consists ofa security subsystem (grants/denies access and handles logons), workstation service (helps the computer gainnetwork access) and a server service (lets the computer provide network services).
Kernel modeKernel mode in Windows 2000 has full access to the hardware and systemresources of the computer. The kernel mode stops user mode services and applications from accessing critical areas of theoperating system that they should not have access to.

Each object in Windows 2000 exists in its own namespace. This is ascreenshot from SysInternal's WinObj


The executive interfaces with all the user mode subsystems. It deals with I/O, object management, security and processmanagement. It contains various components, including:
The Windows 2000 Hardware Abstraction Layer, or HAL, is a layer betweenthe physical hardware of the computer and the rest of the operating system. It was designed to hide differences in hardware andtherefore provide a consistent platform to run applications on. The HAL includes hardware specific code that controls I/Ointerfaces, interrupt controllers and multiple processors.
The hybrid kernel sits between the HAL and the executive and provides multiprocessorsynchronization, thread and interrupt scheduling and dispatching, trap handling and exception dispatching. The hybrid kerneloften interfaces with the process manager[9] and isresponsible for initialising device drivers at bootup that are necessary to get the operating system up and running.
Common functionality
Certain features are common across all editions of Windows 2000, among them being NTFS 5, the Microsoft Management Console (MMC), the EncryptingFile System (EFS), dynamic and basic disk storage, usability enhancements and multi-language and locale support. Windows2000 also has several standard system utilities included as standard. As well as these features, Microsoft introduced a newfeature to protect critical system files, called Windows File Protection. This prevents programs(with the exception of Microsoft's update programs) from replacing critical Windows system files and thus making the systeminoperable.[10]
Microsoft recognized that the infamous Blue Screen of Death (or stop error)could cause serious problems for servers that needed to be constantly running and so provided a system setting that would allowthe server to automatically reboot when a stop error occurred. Also included is an option to dump any of the first64KB of memory to disk (the smallest amount of memory that is useful for debugging purposes, also known as a minidump), a dump of only the kernel's memory, or a dump of the entirecontents of memory to disk, as well as write that this event happened to the Windows 2000 event log. In order to improveperformance on computers running Windows 2000 as a server operating system, Microsoft gave administrators the choice ofoptimizing the operating system's memory and processor usage patterns for background services or for applications.
NTFS 5
Windows 2000 supports disk quotas, which can be set via the "Quota" tab found in the hard disk properties dialog box.


Main article: NTFS
Microsoft released the third version of the NTFS file system — also known as version 5.0 — as part of Windows 2000; thisintroduced quotas, file-system-level encryption,sparse files and reparse points. Sparse files allow for the efficient storage of data setsthat are very large yet contain many areas that only have zeroes. Reparse points allow theobject manager to reset a file namespace lookup and let file system drivers implement changed functionality in a transparentmanner. Reparse points are used to implement volume mount points, junctions,Hierarchical Storage Management, Native Structured Storage and SingleInstance Storage. Volume mount points and directory junctions allow for a file to be transparently referred from one file ordirectory location to another.
Encrypting File SystemMain article: Encrypting File System
The Encrypting File System (EFS) introduced strong file-level encryptionto Windows. Itallows any folder or drive on an NTFS volume to be encryptedtransparently to the end user. EFS works in conjunction with the EFSservice, Microsoft's CryptoAPI and the EFS File System Run-Time Library (FSRTL). As ofSeptember 2006, its encryption has not been compromised.
EFS works by encrypting a file with a bulk symmetric key (also known as theFile Encryption Key, or FEK), which is used because it takes a relatively smaller amount of time to encrypt and decrypt largeamounts of data than if an asymmetric key cipher is used. The symmetric key thatis used to encrypt the file is then encrypted with a public key that isassociated with the user who encrypted the file, and this encrypted data is stored in the header of the encrypted file. Todecrypt the file, the file system uses the private key of the user to decrypt the symmetric key that is stored in the fileheader. It then uses the symmetric key to decrypt the file. Because this is done at the file system level, it is transparent tothe user.[11]
Also, in case of a user losing access to their key, support for recovery agents that can decrypt files is built in to EFS.
Basic and dynamic disk storageMain article: Logical Disk Manager
Windows 2000 introduced the Logical Disk Manager for dynamic storage. Allversions of Windows 2000 support three types of dynamic disk volumes (along with basic storage): simple volumes,spanned volumes and striped volumes:
Windows 2000 also added support for the iSCSI protocol.
Accessibility support
The Windows 2000 onscreen keyboard map allows users who have problems with using the keyboard to use a mouse to input text.


Microsoft made an effort to increase the usability of Windows 2000 for people with visual and auditory impairments and otherdisabilities. They included several utilities designed to make the system moreaccessible:
Language & locale supportWindows 2000 has support for many languages other than English. It supportsArabic, Armenian, Baltic, Central European, Cyrillic, Georgian, Greek, Hebrew, Indic, Japanese, Korean, Simplified Chinese, Thai, Traditional Chinese, Turkic, Vietnamese and Western European languages. [12] Italso has support for many different locales, a list of which can be found on Microsoft'swebsite.
Games supportWindows 2000 included version 7.0 of the DirectX application programming interfaces, commonlyused by game developers on Windows 98.[13] The majority of games written for recent versions of DirectX could therefore run on Windows 2000,in contrast to Windows NT 4.0, which only provided support for DirectX 3.
System utilities
The Microsoft Management Console (MMC) is used for administering Windows 2000 computers.


Windows 2000 introduced the Microsoft Management Console (MMC), which is used to create, save, and open administrative tools.Each of the tools is called a console, and most consoles allow an administrator to administer other Windows 2000 computersfrom one centralised computer. Each console can contain one or many specific administrative tools, called snap-ins.Snap-ins can be either standalone (performs one function), orextensions (adds functionality to an existing snap-in). In order toprovide the ability to control what snap-ins can be seen in a console,the MMC allows consoles to be created in author mode orcreated in user mode. Author mode allows snap-ins to be added, newwindows to be created, all portions of the console tree can bedisplayed and for consoles to be saved. User mode allows consoles to bedistributed with restrictions applied. User mode consolescan have full access granted user so they can make whatever changesthey desire, can have limited access so that users cannot addto the console but they can view multiple windows in a console, or theycan have limited access so that users cannot add to theconsole and also cannot view multiple windows in a console. [14]

The Windows 2000 Computer Management console is capable of performing many system tasks. It is pictured here starting a diskdefragmentation.


The main tools that come with Windows 2000 can be found in the Computer Management console (found in Administrative Tools inthe Control Panel). This contains the event viewer — a means of seeing events and the Windows equivalent of a log file, a system information viewer, the ability to view open shared folders and shared folder sessions,a device manager and a tool to view all the local users and groups on the Windows 2000 computer. It also contains a diskmanagement snap-in, which contains a disk defragmenter as well as other disk management utilities. Lastly, it also contains aservices viewer, which allows users to view all installed services and to stop and start them on demand, as well as configurewhat those services should do when the computer starts.

The REGEDIT.EXE utility on Windows 2000.



The REGEDT32.EXE utility showing the same part of the registry.


Windows 2000 comes bundled with two utilities to edit the Windows registry.One actslike the Windows 9x REGEDIT.EXE program and the other could editregistry permissions in the same manner that Windows NT'sREGEDT32.EXE program could. REGEDIT.EXE has a left-side tree view thatbegins at "My Computer" and lists all loaded hives.REGEDT32.EXE has a left-side tree view, but each hive has its ownwindow, so the tree displays only keys. REGEDIT.EXE representsthe three components of a value (its name, type, and data) as separatecolumns of a table. REGEDT32.EXE represents them as a listof strings. REGEDIT.EXE was written for the Win32 APIand supportsright-clicking of entries in a tree view to adjust properties and othersettings. REGEDT32.EXE was also written for the Win32 APIand requires all actions to be performed from the top menu bar. BecauseREGEDIT.EXE was directly ported from Windows 98, it does not support permission editing (permissions do not exist in Windows 9x). Therefore, theonly way to access the full functionality of an NT registry was with REGEDT32.EXE, which uses the older multiple document interface (MDI), which newer versions of regedit do not use.Windows XP was the first system to integrate these two programs into one, adopting theREGEDIT.EXE behavior with the additional NT functionality.
The System File Checker (SFC) also comes bundled with Windows 2000. It is a commandline utility that scans system files and verifies whether they were signed by Microsoft and works in conjunction with theWindows File Protection mechanism. It can also repopulate and repair all the files in the Dllcache folder. [15]
Recovery ConsoleMain article: Recovery Console

The Recovery Console is usually used to recover unbootable systems.


The Recovery Console is an application that is run from outside the installed copy of Windows and that enables a user toperform maintenance tasks that cannot be run from inside of the installed copy, or cannot be feasibly run from another computeror copy of Windows 2000. It is usually used to recover the system from errors causing booting to fail, which would render othertools useless.
It presents itself as a simple command line interface. The commands arelimited to ones for checking and repairing the hard drive(s), repairing boot information (including NTLDR), replacing corrupted system files with fresh copies from the CD, or enabling/disabling services and driversfor the next boot.
The console can be accessed in one of two ways:
Server family functionality
The Windows 2000 server family consists of Windows 2000 Server, Windows 2000 Advanced Server and Windows 2000 DatacenterServer.
All editions of Windows 2000 Server have the following services and functionality built-in:
Distributed File SystemMain article: Distributed File System(Microsoft)
The Distributed File System, or DFS, allows shares in multiple different locations to belogically grouped under one folder, or DFS root. When users try to access a share that exists off the DFS root, the useris really looking at a DFS link and the DFS server transparently redirects them to the correct file server and share. ADFS root can only exist on a Windows 2000 version that is part of the server family, and only one DFS root can exist on thatserver.
There can be two ways of implementing DFS on Windows 2000: through standalone DFS, or through domain-based DFS. Standalone DFSallows for only DFS roots that exist on the local computer, and thus does not use Active Directory. Domain-based DFS roots existwithin Active Directory and can have their information distributed to other domain controllers within the domain — this providesfault tolerance to DFS. DFS roots that exist on a domain must be hosted on a domain controller or on a domain member server. Thefile and root information is replicated via the Microsoft File Replication Service (FRS). [16]
Active DirectoryMain article: Active Directory
A new way of organizing Windows network domains, or groups of resources, calledActive Directory, was introduced with Windows 2000 and obsoleted Windows NT's traditional domain model. Active Directory'shierarchical nature allowed administrators a built-in way to manage user and computer policies, user accounts, and toautomatically deploy programs and updates with a greater degree of scalability and centralization than provided in previousWindows versions. It is one of the main reasons many corporations migrated to Windows 2000. User information stored in ActiveDirectory also provided a convenient phone book-like function to end users. Active Directory domains can vary from smallinstallations with a few hundred objects, to large installations with millions of objects. Active Directory contains the abilityto organise and link groups of domains into a contiguous domain name space to formtrees. Groups of trees existing outside of the same namespace can be linked together to form forests.
Active Directory services can only be installed on a Windows 2000Server, Advanced Server, or Datacenter Server computer, andcannot be installed on a Windows 2000 Professional computer. However,Windows 2000 Professional was the first client operatingsystem able to exploit Active Directory's new functionality. As part ofan organization's migration, Windows NT clients continuedto function until all clients were upgraded to Windows 2000Professional, at which point the Active Directory domain could beswitched to native mode and maximum functionality achieved.
Active directory requires a new DNS server that supports SRV resource records, or that anorganization's existing DNS infrastructure be upgraded to support this functionality. It also requires that one or more domaincontrollers exist to hold the Active Directory database and provide Active Directory directory services.
Volume fault toleranceAlong with support for simple, spanned and striped volumes, the server family of Windows 2000 also supports fault tolerantvolume types. The types supported are mirrored volumes and RAID-5 volumes:
Versions


Microsoft released various versions of Windows 2000 to cater to different markets and business needs. It released Windows 2000Professional, Windows 2000 Server, Windows 2000 Advanced Server and Windows 2000 Datacenter Server:
DeploymentWindows 2000 can be deployed to a site via various methods. It can be installed onto servers via traditional media (such asvia CD) or via distribution folders that reside on a shared folder. Installations can be attended or unattended. An attendedinstallation requires the manual intervention of an operator to choose options when installing the operating system. Unattendedinstallations are scripted via an answer file, or predefined script in the form of an INI filethat has all the options filled in already. The Winnt.exe or Winnt32.exe program then uses that answer file to automate theinstallation. Unattended installations can be performed via a bootable CD, using Microsoft Systems Management Server (SMS), via the SystemPreparation Tool (Sysprep), via running the Winnt32.exe program using the /syspart switch or via running the RemoteInstallation Service (RIS).
The Syspart method is started on a standardised reference computer —though the hardware need not be similar — and it copiesthe required installation files from the reference computer's harddrive to the target computer's hard drive. The hard drive doesnot need to be in the target computer and may be swapped out to it atany time, with hardware configuration still needing to bedone later. The Winnt.exe program must also be passed a /unattendswitch that points to a valid answer file and a /s file topoint to the location of one or more valid installation sources.
Sysprep allows the duplication of a disk image on an existing Windows 2000 Server installation to multiple servers. This meansthat all applications and system configuration settings will be copied across to the new Windows 2000 installations, but it alsomeans that the reference and target computers must have the same HALs, ACPIsupport, and mass storage devices — though Windows 2000 automaticallydetects plug and play devices. The primary reason for using Sysprep isfor deploying Windows 2000 to a site that has standardhardware and that needs a fast method of installing Windows 2000 tothose computers. If a system has different HALs, mass storagedevices or ACPI support, then multiple images would need to bemaintained.
Systems Management Server can be used to upgrade system to Windows2000 to multiple systems. Those operating systems that canbe upgraded in this process must be running a version of Windows thatcan be upgraded (Windows NT 3.51, Windows NT 4, Windows 98and Windows 95 OSR2.x) and those versions must be running the SMSclient agent that can receive software installation operations.Using SMS allows installations to happen over a wide geographical areaand provides centralised control over upgrades tosystems.
Remote Installation Services (RIS) are a means to automatically install Windows 2000 Professional (and not Windows 2000Server) to a local computer over a network from a central server. Images do not have to support specific hardware configurationsand the security settings can be configured after the computer reboots as the service generates a new unique security ID (SID)for the machine. This is required so that local accounts are given the right identifier and do not clash with other Windows 2000Professional computers on a network. [18] RIS requiresthat client computers are able to boot over the network via either a network interface cardthat has a Pre-Boot Execution Environment (PXE) boot ROM installed or that it has a network card installed that is supported by the remote boot disk generator. The remote computer must also meet the Net PCspecification. The server that RIS runs on must be Windows 2000 Server and the server must be able to access a networkDNS Service, a DHCPservice and the Active Directory services. [19]
Total cost of ownershipSee also: Studies related toMicrosoftIn October 2002, Microsoft commissioned IDC to determine thetotal cost of ownership (TCO) for enterprise applications on Windows 2000 versusthe TCO of Linux on the same enterprise applications. IDC looked at security and otherinfrastructure tasks, and Web Serving. According to the report, Windows 2000 had a lower TCO for four infrastructure items andLinux had a lower TCO for web serving. IDC's report was based on telephone interviews of IT executives and managers of 104North American companies in which they determined what they were using for a specificworkload for file, print, security and networking services.
IDC determined that the four areas where Windows 2000 had a betterTCO than Linux — over a period of five years for an averageorganization of 100 employees — were in the use of file, print, networkinfrastructure and security infrastructure. Theydetermined, however, that Linux had a better TCO than Windows 2000 whenit came to web serving. The report also found that thegreatest cost was not in the procurement of software and hardware, butin staffing costs and downtime. The report did not takeinto consideration the impact of downtime to the profitability of thebusiness (although they did apply a 40% productivityfactor, in order to recognize that employees are not entirelyunproductive during periods of IT infrastructure downtime) thoughit did find that Linux servers had less unplanned downtime than Windows2000 Servers. They found that most Linux servers ran lessworkload per server than Windows 2000 servers and also found that noneof the businesses they interviewed used 4-way SMP Linuxcomputers. IDC also did not take into account specific applicationservers — servers that need low maintenance and are providedby a specific vendor — when they performed their study. The report didemphasise that TCO was only one factor in consideringwhether to use a particular IT platform, and also noted that asmanagement and server software improved and became betterpackaged the overall picture that was being shown in their report couldchange. [20]
Security flawsA number of potential security issues have been noted in Windows 2000. A common complaint is that "by default, Windows 2000installations contain numerous potential security problems. Many unneeded services are installed and enabled, and there is noactive local security policy"[21]. In addition to thechoice of insecure defaults, according to SANS, the most common flaws found in the OS areremotely exploitable buffer overflow vulnerabilities [22]. Other flaws in the operating system that have received criticism include theuse of vulnerable encryption techniques [23].
Computer worms first came into the public spotlight during the period where Windows2000 was the dominant server operating system. Code Red and Code Red II were famous (and highly visible to the worldwide press) worms that exploited vulnerabilities of the indexing service of Windows 2000's Internet Information Services (IIS). In August 2003, two major worms named theSobig worm and the Blaster wormbegan to attack millions of Microsoft Windows computers, resulting in the largest down-time and clean-up cost to that date. The2005 Zotob worm was blamed for security compromises on Windows 2000 machines atHomeland Security, the New York Times,ABC and CNN[24].
Service PacksThroughout its life, Windows 2000 has received four full service packs and one rollup update package which is the latestservice pack for Windows 2000. Many Windows 2000 users were hoping for a Windows 2000 Service Pack 5, but Microsoft cancelledthis project early on in its development. Service pack 5 went on to become Update Rollup 1 for Service Pack 4. Microsoftstates that this update will meet customers needs better than a whole new service pack, and will still help Windows 2000customers secure their PCs, reduce support costs, and allow their systems to support the current generation of computerhardware.[25]
Because Windows 2000 is now in the Extended support phase of the Microsoft Lifecycle Policy[1] there will be no future service packs for Windows 2000. Only critical updates will be provided for Windows 2000unpaid.
作者: Mallon    时间: 2007-2-13 11:22

Windows XP
   



Windows XP
(Part of the Microsoft Windowsfamily)
Screenshot

Screenshot of Windows XP SP2
Developer
Microsoft
Web site: www.microsoft.com/windowsxp
Release information
Release date:October 25 2001 info
Current version:Service Pack 2 (SP2) (August 6 2004) info
Source model:Shared source
License:Microsoft EULA
Kernel type:Hybrid kernel
Support status
Exteded support phase.
Further reading
Windows XP is a line of operating systems developed by Microsoft for use on general-purpose computer systems, including home and business desktops, notebookcomputers, and media centers. The letters "XP" stand forexperience.[1] Codenamed Whistler after Whistler,British Columbia (as many Microsoft employees skied at the resort during itsdevelopment), Windows XP is the successor to Windows 2000 and is the first consumeroriented operating system produced by Microsoft to be built on the Windows NTkernel and architecture.It also put an end to Windows 9x/Me by integrating some of 9x's features into the Windows NTcodebase. Windows XP was first released on October 25 2001, andas of 2006 is the most recent consumer version of MicrosoftWindows available to the general public, with over 400 million copies in use, according to an estimate by anIDC analyst.[2]
The most common editions of the operating system are Windows XP Home Edition, which is targeted at home users, and Windows XPProfessional, which has additional features such as support for Windows Serverdomains and dual processors, and is targeted at power users andbusiness clients. Windows XP Media Center Edition has additionalmultimedia features enhancing the ability to record and watch TV shows, watch DVDs, and listen to music. Windows XP Tablet PC Edition is designed to run the ink-aware Tablet PCplatform. Two separate 64-bit versions of Windows XP were also released, Windows XP 64-bit Edition for IA-64 (Itanium) processors and Windows XP Professional x64Edition for x86-64 processors.
Windows XP is known for its improved stability and efficiency over previous versions of Windows. It presents a significantlyredesigned graphical user interface, a change Microsoft promoted as moreuser-friendly than previous versions of Windows. New software management capabilities were introduced to avoid the"DLL hell" that plagued older consumer versions of Windows. It is also the first version ofWindows to use product activation to combat software piracy,a restriction that did not sit well with some users and privacyadvocates. Windows XP has also been criticized by some users forsecurity vulnerabilities, tight integration of applications suchas Internet Explorer and Windows Media Player, and for aspects of itsuser interface.
Windows Vista is the latest version of Microsoft Windows, released to volume licensecustomers on November 30, 2006. Worldwide general release isscheduled for January 30 2007.
Editions
Diagram representing the main editions of Windows XP. It is based on the category of the edition (grey) and codebase (blackarrow).


The two major editions are Windows XP Home Edition, designed for home users, and Windows XP Professional, designed forbusiness and power-users. Other builds of Windows XP include those built for specialized hardware and crippled versions sold inEurope and select developing economies.
Windows XP Professional offers a number of features unavailable in the Home Edition, including:
Windows XP for specialized hardware
The main menu from Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005.


Microsoft has also customized Windows XP to suit different markets and there are now several different versions available.Five different versions of XP for specific hardware were designed, two of them specifically for 64-bit processors.
Windows XP 64-bit Edition This edition was designed specifically for Itanium-based workstations. This edition wasdiscontinued in early 2005, after HP, the last distributor of Itanium-basedworkstations, stopped selling Itanium systems marketed as 'workstations'. However, Itanium support continues in the servereditions of Windows.Windows XP Professional x64 Edition Not to be confused with the previous 64-bit Itanium edition of Windows XP, this edition is based on Windows Server 2003 and supports AMD's AMD64 64-bit extension of theIntel IA-32 architecture. This is found in AMD's Opteron and Athlon64 chips, as well as Intel's chips implementing their broadly compatible EM64Textension.Microsoft had previously supported other microprocessors with earlier versions of the WindowsNT operating system line (including two 64-bit lines, the DEC Alpha and theMIPS R4000, although Windows NT used them as 32-bit processors). The files necessary for all of thearchitectures were included on the same installation CD and did not require the purchase of separate versions.Windows XP Media Center Edition This edition is designed for Media center PCs. Originally, it was only availablebundled with one of these computers, and could not be purchased separately. In 2003 the Media Center Edition was updated as"Windows XP Media Center Edition 2003", which added additional features such as FM radio tuning. Another update was released in2004, and again in 2005, which was the first edition available for System Builders.
Internet Explorer 6 running on a Tablet PC.


Windows XP Tablet PC Edition Intended for specially-designed notebook/laptop computers called tablet PCs, the Tablet PCEdition is compatible with a pen-sensitive screen, supporting handwritten notes and portrait-oriented screens. It cannot bepurchased separately from a Tablet PC.Windows XP Embedded An edition for specific consumer electronics, set-top boxes, kiosks/ATMs, medical devices, arcade video games, point-of-sale terminals, and Voice Over InternetProtocol (VoIP) components.Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs In July 2006, Microsoft introduced a "thin-client" version of Windows XP called Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs,which targets older machines (as early as the original Pentium). It will only be available to Software Assurance customers, who would like to upgrade to Windows XP to take advantage ofits security and management capabilities, but can't afford to purchase new hardware. Applications will typically be run on aremote server using Remote Desktop.Windows XP Starter EditionWindows XP Starter Edition is a lower-cost version of Windows XP available in Thailand, Turkey, Malaysia, Indonesia, Russia,India, Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Ecuador, Uruguay and Venezuela. It is similar to Windows XP Home, but islimited to low-end hardware, can only run 3 programs at a time, and has some other features either removed or disabled bydefault.
According to a Microsoft press release, Windows XP Starter Edition is "a low-cost introduction to the Microsoft Windows XPoperating system designed for first-time desktop PC users in developing countries."It is seen as an effort to fight unauthorized copying of Windows XP and possibly the spread of GNU/Linux-based systems in Asia and SouthAmerica.
SpecializationsThe Starter Edition includes some special features for non-US markets where consumers may not be computer literate. Not found in the Home Edition, these include localized help features for those who may not speak English, a country-specificcomputer wallpaper[5] and screensavers, and other default settings designed for easier use than typical Windows XP installations.
In addition, the Starter Edition also has some unique limitations to prevent it from displacing more expensive versions ofWindows XP.[6] Only three applications can be run at onceon the Starter Edition, and each application may only open three windows. The maximum screen resolution is limited to 1024×768,and there is no support for workgroup networking or domains. In addition, the Starter Edition is licensed only for low-endprocessors like Intel's Celeron or AMD's Duron. There is also a256MB limit on main memory, and an 80GB disk size limit (Microsoft has not made it clear, however, if this is for total diskspace, per partition, or per disk). There are also fewer options for customizing the themes, desktop, and taskbar.
Market adoptionOn October 9 2006, Microsoft announced[7] that they reached a milestone of 1,000,000 units of Windows XP StarterEdition sold. In the mass market, however, the Starter Edition has not had much success. Many markets where it is available haveseen the uptake of illegally cracked or pirated versions of the software instead.
Windows XP Edition NIn March 2004, the European Commission fined Microsoft
作者: 月光不锈    时间: 2007-2-13 12:10

求翻译。。。
作者: tina    时间: 2007-2-13 12:32

忒专业了，实在看不懂，只能看看图片
作者: aigi    时间: 2007-2-13 15:36

干什么发这个在这里啊……
有什么特别的含义没？
作者: Mallon    时间: 2007-2-13 17:51

灌水
作者: 月光不锈    时间: 2007-2-13 21:12

恩。。。。
作者: Snowpine    时间: 2007-2-14 15:03

学到了好多知识



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